30). Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif. 1975 A Survey of Middle American Prose Manuscripts in the Native Historical Tradition. Fortunately this is beginning to change; we hope, one day, for an archaeological complement to the written record. 213 The Social vs. Legal Context of Nahuatl Títulos upper case “C” something like an upper case “E,” and the “t” resembles an upper case “D” (Fig. For Ocoyoacac: AGN T 2998, 3: 18r (“gentilestlaca”), 28r (“tigentilestlaca”), and 29r (“Jetileztlaca”). Thus the bicephalic eagle and rampant lions equally could have derived from any number of coats of arms, including those of Potosí as drawn by Guaman Poma (Fig. 4,197 reviews #8 of 880 Restaurants in Cusco €€ - €€€ Peruvian International Contemporary. The page is divided by a central vertical axis composed of three coats of arms: the papal arms, the royal house of Spain, and Guaman Poma’s own “fabricated” coat of arms. Ultimately they failed because, as Murra points out, the Spanish used this same system to strip the “native lords” of those same rights they had so briefly won. . In fact, the centrality of text as the locus for the analysis of continuity, change, and contestation of tradition and power in the postconquest world is one of the common issues that arises from the various papers in this volume.7 But text here does not refer to the rarified traditions of European literature in which the New World is configured according to an imagination that allows no voice other than the European. 1 Frontispiece, portada, from Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, Nueva corónica y buen gobierno, ca. Buenos Aires. 6) of a coat of arms granted in a 1545 cédula by Charles V to Felipe Tupac Yupanqui, kuraka of Cusicanqui de Pacajes. Public affronts to personal honor charged interactions between Spaniards and Indians and between Indians, particularly between those with elite pretensions and peasant commoners. Yucatan and Yucatecan Maya leap out of the crowd of non-Nahua Mesoamerican languages and peoples. . As Elizabeth Boone (in this volume, 183) notes, most Nahua towns had their own collections of pictorials. On the one hand, Guaman Poma repeatedly noted that the social order expressed in Inka festivals and in the administrative tasks which these festivals articulated had been preferable to that of Spanish Peru.39 And on the other, Christianity was unintelligible unless it could somehow be anchored in Andean experience.This is why Guaman Poma believed that monotheistic and indeed Christian beliefs had been at home in the Andes long before the Spaniards arrived, and why he argued, again and again, that Andean people had the innate capacity both to comprehend Christian teaching and to put it into practice (Figs. But such identifications were contextual in the understanding of Spaniards so that costumbre and objects and images of costumbre were not in and of themselves idolatrous and subject to complete suppression in any form. 11 Compositional pattern of a lliklla (woman’s shawl). Early in the planning process there was loud enthusiasm for Columbus, for the accoutrements of exploration and discovery, and for the soon-tedious landfall question: Where exactly did Columbus land? 277 Frank Salomon Fig. If, in spite of this ban, native women had children by non-Indians, both the woman and her offspring should be exiled from her pueblo and prohibited from taking residence in Indian villages (Guaman Poma 1980: 1019–1020). 1992a The Amanuenses Have Appropriated the Text: Interpreting a Nahuatl Song of Santiago. Over most of the stretch of time involved, a system of draft labor comparable to the central Mexican repartimiento persisted, as one would expect in a Stage 2. Such conceptions might have granted legitimacy to Nahua patterns of religion. . Nosotros no somos veganos pero la comida nos pareció espectacular, definitivamente amé la parrilla cuzqueña, tienen un sampler de 5 variedades de cervezas artesanales que deben probar, otra cosa que nos enamoro es el lugar! ¡Nos encantó green point! BRENNER, ANITA 1992 The Boy Who Could Do Anything and Other Mexican Folk Tales Retold by Anita Brenner. 14, 69): “desde alli en treinta dias se podia comenzar porque alli entraba el mes de do principaba el ano. University of Texas Press, Austin. . 1993b The Pen and the Sword: Culture and Imperialism. Although they acknowledged some Spanish responsibility for the devastations endured by native peoples, 77 Irene Silverblatt seventeenth-century churchmen and legal scholars also preached that Andeans’ extraordinary sufferings amounted to God’s punishment for a nación that had stubbornly resisted His ways (Doctrina 1985: 652–653). The use of “Don” meant a great deal to those with a right to it; Coyotzin would not have been so cavalier with it, particularly in association with his own name. Nueva colección de documentos para la Historia de México, vol. With them was established the triumph of Christianity over the Pre-Hispanic deities, but the ancient gods did not lose their hold on the people. 34, 53). A second type of colonization is characterized, on the part of the colonizers, by a mixture of economic exploitation and religious intolerance, which posits either conversion or extermination of the native, pagan population; and on the part of the native population, it is characterized by an initial phase of resistance followed by conversion and assimilation or extinction. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. BARTLETT, ROBERT 1993 The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950 –1350. The validity of this statement can be demonstrated with two examples. By Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón. 1991 The Huarochirí Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion. On the other hand,Venice and Genoa created, during the course of the thirteenth century, trading-post empires, that is to say, they established military control over important trading posts, mostly used for long-distance trade. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. 1964 The Aztecs under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519 –1810. I was, however, interested to see in a number of papers that diversity of attitude is recognized as having played an important role in the colonizing experience (for example, Burkhart, this volume). The bottom half of the native paper diagram presents the relevant 26 Although written wills had no Pre-Columbian prototypes (S. L. Cline 1984: 49), S. L. Cline (1986: 125) notes that in colonial Nahuatl wills from Culhuacan the parcels of land are identified by their place-names, soil types, and measurements, reflecting the pictorial cadasters. But, as Guaman Poma and others observed again and again, Spanish governance disrupted these old, established harmonies and turned a land of abundance into a land of perennial shortages where crop failure and starvation were constant threats. In Explorations in Ethnohistory: Indians of Central Mexico in the Sixteenth Century (H. R. Harvey and Hanns J. Prem, eds. They were written down after the conquest by native authors as well as by Spaniards; most of the latter were clerics interested in the culture of the people to whom they ministered. I suspect, however, that certain high-frequency items such as casara-, pagara-, and hasta achieved wide currency in the general population from a relatively early time. My focus is precisely on the functions the pictorial manuscripts continued to fulfill in the postconquest era. The result was an intensely ancestor-focused ideology with participation in mummy cults and recital of ancestral deeds or vecochina (Hernández Príncipe 1986 [1622]: 484; Duviols 1986: 145) functioning as prime mechanisms to reproduce groups with hereditary rights. 303 Sabine MacCormack istrative and economic transactions were delegated to individuals who acted as the Inka’s representatives. The above-quoted Quechua narrative of Concha’s origin ends by stating that a then-living man named Cristóbal Chauca Huaman was Yasali’s grand15 The building with the cross is larger than adjacent ones and seems to be lightly whitewashed. GARCILASO DE LA VEGA 1918–19 Los comentarios reales de los Incas [1609], vols. 1995 Becoming Indian in the Andes of Seventeenth Century Peru. 2 vols. This was not only a method of delimiting the corvée labor Andean people had to perform for their Spanish masters but also a way of ensuring that priests said Mass and the customary prayers at the proper time. TAYLOR, WILLIAM 1972 Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca. Skilled painters were selected to create this pictorial report because this case was destined to go before the Council of the Indies. The notion of a tacit “nation surrounded” carries no implication that “Quechuaness” is a corporate, fixed identity (indeed, that better describes the explicit ideology of modern nation-states), but instead it serves precisely to call attention to the problematical and shifting ground of ethnic and linguistic identity in the Andes. “Work. This had an important impact on the economic activities of the native populations as well as on the organization of production: there were also changes in the patterns of cultivation, the introduction of sugar cultivation in Cyprus, for example. Spaniards also brought a refined sense of honor and shame to the Peruvian Andes—an ethic of living which, as many commentators of Mediterranean and Spanish-colonized worlds have pointed out, sharply colored relations between men and women (Gilmore 1987; Peristiany 1965; Seed 1988; Gutiérrez 1991). Terence Turner (1988) has suggested that this mode of remembering, which is very prominent in ancient Hebrew scripture as well, corresponds to the world-view of small subsistence-autonomous societies within the orbit, but not the constant control, of empires.Within this view of the past, a Pre-Hispanic story had the evident function of naturalizing normative social relations—rights to water, etc.—as attributes of the superhuman natural beings manifest in earth forms (the story of Capyama, a geographical feature related to social infrastructure, is an example; Golte 1981). 1v). .” We might presume, therefore, that both groups kept some accounting of events associated with early colonial rearrangements in indigenous towns. Almost no evidence comes from archaeology, that great resource for preconquest America, because traditionally there has been little excavation of colonial sites except as an overlay to a Pre-Columbian site. . 3 Elizabeth Hill Boone We are fortunate additionally to have rich documentary resources for both Peru and Mexico. 1977 Warp-Patterned Weaves of the Andes. BURKHART, LOUISE M. 1989 The Slippery Earth: Nahua-Christian Moral Dialogue in Sixteenth-Century Mexico. Revista del Museo Nacional 39: 153–191. Its transformation from being an object of immediate socio-ritual discourse to having the stature of actual witness is, in part, a factor of the passage of historical time. A handwriting expert may find other strong similarities between the Ocoyoacac and Atlauhtla titles. . S.E.V.P.E.N., Paris. Men lost face if they did not keep their word or if they were unable to physically defend themselves and protect their family. Photograph courtesy of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, Fonds Mexicain 13–14. For example, the flourishing of the Marian cult among the natives was accompanied by the appearance of a manuscript in Nahuatl attributed to an illustrious native, Don Antonio Valeriano, a former student of the Franciscan Colegio de Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco, who was related to the family of Moctezuma II. In The Inca and Aztec States, 1400 –1800: Anthropology and History (George Collier, Renato Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth, eds. Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, Ramírez de Fuenleal’s successor, continued this official interest. Indigenous South American Perspectives on the Past ( Jonathan Hill, ed. 2, chap. University of California Press, Berkeley. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. The World of the Cah: Postconquest Yucatec Maya Society. 21b Drawing of one of a pair of aquillas from the Atocha, before 1622. 288 The Colonial Re-Voicing of an Appeal to the Archaic worried about getting the hard drinkers and children down the steep rocky mountainside and back to San Damián before sundown, so the officiant limited the closing ceremony to the minimum legally binding reading of the irrigators’ roll call, followed by a brief farewell dance for the lake. HONOR’S REPRISE Spain touched off waves of societal contradictions while fabricating “Indians” as part of its design for colonial rule, as contrary gender practices merged, uneasily, with the colony’s racialized, social core. In paradise, faith is coterminous with its expression; appearance and essence are one. Chroniclers of the other mendicant orders corroborate these Franciscan reports. Cultural forms such as texts are indeterminate in that they allow an infinite set of interpretations, yet determinate in that the set is bounded by the formal structure of the text and—in particular instances—by the institutional settings within which the text is transmitted. Looking about for broader cultural phenomena that might throw light on the Andean situation, I find relatively little that is unambiguous, partly because of the lack of a large corpus of mundane indigenous texts that is most revealing for the Nahuas and the Yucatecans, and partly because of my present rustiness with the Peruvian historical and anthropological literature. In the top line, to the left of the dotted line, I include the main celestial epithets, connected to their customary referents (e.g., killa to “moon”). .34 31 Both Andeans and Spaniards participate in this visualization of the Inka past in which the images are sent to Spain. 260 Susan D. Gillespie GUZMÁN, CRISTÓBAL DE, HERNANDO PIMENTEL, AND ANTONIO CORTÉS 1939–42 Carta al rey, de don Cristóbal de Guzmán, don Hernando Pimentel y don Antonio Cortés, caciques principales de México, Tezcuco y Tlacupa . Harper and Row, New York. Barros emerged from hiding and, as sole justice in the region, assumed possession of the royal Audiencia. Such an attitude of tolerance is understandable, for it was, after all, the merchants who had to deal with the diversity of weights, measures, coins, products, peoples, and their customs, and deal with them successfully if they were to be good businessmen. Mother of God and of Humanity 2.8 5.30 8.43 15.88 9.49 Diospa rampan Diospa maman Diospa maman Dios purichiq Jesus puriqchiq Wayna wallpap kusip marq’an 8.46 8.47 15.88 8.43 6.31 8.48 Wikzaykipi runakachiq Ukhuykipi kamakachaq uruya Quri wantu Hanaq pachap qalla sanan Runap marq’an Who leads God by the hand Mother of God Mother of God who makes God run Who made Jesus function Cradler of the young creator, of the fortunate In your womb, maker of a being In your inside, maker of a soul (basket for crossing river) Golden litter Genetrix of heaven’s lineage Cradler of humanity [of Quechuas] (Runa) II. KARTTUNEN, FRANCES, AND JAMES LOCKHART 1976 Nahuatl in the Middle Years: Language Contact Phenomena in Texts of the Colonial Period. . la atención de Nicole fue hermosa! The resulting “Relación de la genealogía e linaje de los Señores . But in those places in which their customs are not contrary to religion or law, I don’t believe they ought to be changed just for the sake of change. He thus produced a very faithful rendering of the ecclesiastical calendar current in his day.41 Some office books depicted activities pertinent to the different months. Photograph courtesy of Museo Arqueológico, Cuzco. 252]: 417–432). See Christianity: catechism Tetepango, 168 Tetzcoco. a heretic or witch or idol worshipper. 1979 Los Otomíes: Cultura e historia prehispánica de los pueblos mesoamericanos de habla otomiana. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 5 Elizabeth Hill Boone petitions, and letters—written in Nahuatl, or Zapotec, or Maya, or Quechua and revealing specifically indigenous concerns. The mere existence of the text changes the world into what the text says it is (for example, a world in which huaca-worship is punishable). MOLINA, CRISTÓBAL DE (“EL CUZQUEÑO”) 1943 Fábulas y ritos de los Incas [1575]. Indians” (Stern 1982: 80). 17 for the general form).9 Biographies of the rulers recorded their great deeds, and noble genealogies traced lines of descent and rule.10 All these historical manuscripts, with the possible exception of the cosmogonies, were the purview of political rulers and civic leaders, who saw to their maintenance. CHIMALPAHIN CUAUHTLEHUANITZIN, DOMINGO FRANCISCO DE SAN ANTÓN MUÑÓN 1903 Anales Mexicanos: México-Azcapotzalco, 1426 –1589 (F. Galicia Chimalpopoca, trans.). (For many of the above points, see also Restall n.d.: 410–421, 505–512.) Cuardernos de la Casa Chata, Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, Tlalpan. The first is the history, and the other four are, broadly speaking, “religious” in nature. . 8, 273) and authors depending on this text write Ayamarca for November but describe rituals leading up to the initiation of young men, which have nothing to do with this version of the month’s name. Spaniards rushed in with swords drawn to defend the clerics. 153 Elizabeth Hill Boone and paintings of current news, such as the paintings of Cortés and his cadre that Moctezuma received shortly after they landed in Veracruz.14 The social upheaval and destruction caused by the conquest of Mexico destroyed many of these documents, especially in the metropolitan centers. LOPEZ, ROBERTO S. 1975 Venise et Gênes: deux styles, une réussite. 16 The Apostle Bartholomew, after reaching the Andes, has erected a cross at Carabuco on the shores of Lake Titicaca; he preaches to an Andean disciple, who is depicted in the act of praying, having first placed his headdress on the ground in front of him (see Fig. Photograph courtesy of Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. 2, chaps. Today the old dam is left open, and the actual work of closing the dam is just a matter of shutting the steel sluice. Rica comida , recomiendo el lomo saltado vegano. 3). A comparison of these translations with my own is beyond the scope of this chapter. In Tlacuilos y escribanos. 26, 27), go on to harvesting and storing maize and potatoes in May (Fig. Texts, in the form of documentary sources, are essential for the kinds of study of continuity and change that this volume contains.Texts were also important for the postconquest peoples themselves, who used them as tools in maintaining their self-identity. 56 Aquillas, keros, and Inka-style textiles all have a social use value among Andeans in the colonial period that is dependent upon Pre-Hispanic precedents and which accounts for the proliferation in their production, especially keros. Whereas the term could be invoked by 39 40 108 Colonial Andean Images and Objects church and dressed in Spanish clothes (Fig. In The Language of the Inka since the European Invasion and elsewhere, I have called this process “the reterritorialization of Southern Peruvian Quechua.” In this chapter, I will sketch the outlines of a broader account in which I track the rhetorical and cultural practices through which Southern Quechuas have fashioned a distinctive sense of themselves over the 450 years since the Spaniards invaded Peru. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. JARA, RENÉ, AND NICHOLAS SPADACCINI (EDS.) Late-sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Peruvian texts placed explicit constraints on sexual relations. These texts are socially located in very different ways, with the seventeenth-century hymn composed by a churchman and the folksong (presumably) by Quechua-speaking peasants.The hymn, though intended for and appropriated by Quechua peasants, fits stylistically into European musical traditions. Direct evidence for painted orations is sparse, and indeed Lockhart (1992: 328) has surmised that such speeches were not painted; but Zorita (1963: 140) does speak of such documents and recalls a situation where Nahua nobles drafted an alphabetic version of a huehuetlatolli from its pictorial source. Detecting such changes in primordial titles requires a good deal of guesswork. Implied in this analysis is that the language of colonial power, in this case Spanish, penetrates native language relative to the destabilizing of native social and political institutions. Footprints carry the people into the area from the left, after which they defeat some of the already-settled polities and found the city of Cuauhtinchan in the center of the map. Furthermore, he produced two drawings of Cuzco, one a view of its center, and the other a detail of certain sacred buildings and storehouses (Figs. 37). . The Acalan document was attached as supporting evidence to a probanza, which was a request for monetary reward for assistance in the conquest. This goddess, after a series of episodes, became the mountain called La Viuda. (1980: 48–49; also see 54, 56, 89, 275, 720, 871) Although ambivalent about the legitimacy of Inka rule, Guaman Poma admitted that the lords of Cuzco presided over a well-ordered society. MARTÍNEZ C., JOSÉ LUIS 1986 El “Personaje Senado” en los Keros: Hacia Una Identificacion de los Kurakas Andinos. Special Collections Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 1425/1430. Green Point Solicitado Opinión Guardar Compartir 4,152 opiniones #8 de 881 restaurantes en Cuzco $$ - $$$ Peruana Internacional contemporánea 235 Calle Carmen Bajo San Blas, … 306 The Inka and Christian Calendars in Early Colonial Peru Fig. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 207 The Social vs. Legal Context of Nahuatl Títulos charge of examining tlalamatl, or indigenous land documents. There they either took up for themselves the duties of the traditional tlahcuiloh, the creator and interpreter of written records, or conveyed their skills to other men who did.Within two or three decades, indigenous towns all had officials, now usually designated escribanos, keeping local records in the new kind of writing. During the period after the earthquake, faith in the Christ of Pachacamilla was also revived within the African community, and on Friday nights the Africans would join in noisy celebrations. Juan de Tovar and known to have served as a source for the 1590 account by Fr. Biblioteca Historica Mexicana de Obras Inéditas. the abandoned boy Yasali was scared to death, being just a child, and he hid inside the place where a cross now stands in Concha Sica. A joint statement issued by the Franciscan, Dominican, and Augustinian orders arguing against the replacement of friars by secular clergy predicts that the friars’ removal would have devastating effects on the native people’s faith (García Icazbalceta 1886: 180). Guaman Poma and a few like-minded individuals, on the other hand, perceived in such display the legitimate reaffirmation of Andean musical and poetic traditions, of the canons of ceremonial dress, ritualized work, and public feasting in a now Christian society. Basil Blackwell, Oxford. As is customary, this calendar also provides the information that November has thirty days, while the cycle of the moon only has twenty-nine. O’MACK, SCOTT n.d. Spaniards on an Aztec Landscape: Or, The Conquest of Mexico from the Ground Up. La comida es excelente y el servicio incomparable, en particular Rafael, quien se tomó el tiempo de recomendarnos … Copyists sometimes inadvertently (or perhaps intentionally) left out or miscopied dates or misspelled people’s names. Indeed, under the hypothesized conditions among the Maya, it would be artificial to speak of stages at all. El Colegio de México, Mexico. Why did Sunicancha think that questioning Cristóbal Chauca Huaman’s activity (as opposed to anybody else’s) would prejudice Concha’s titles? This was the situation with the Codex Huejotzingo, which survives because it became part of a lawsuit brought by Hernan Cortés against three members of the Audiencia, who had usurped Cortés’s financial interests in the town of Huejotzingo when Cortés returned to Spain in 1528. JARQUÍN O., MARÍA TERESA 1990 Formación y desarrollo de un pueblo novohispano: Metepec en el Valle de Toluca. PARMENTER, ROSS 1993 The Lienzo of Tulancingo, Oaxaca: An Introductory Study of a Ninth Painted Sheet from the Coixtlahuaca Valley. 1574 by Cristóbal de Molina, a long-term resident of Cuzco and priest of the parish of Nuestra Señora de los Remedios from 1565 (Porras Barrenechea 1986). In the end, the boundaries were marked in a special ceremony involving trumpet playing, the shooting of arrows, the presentation of flowers, neighbors embracing, and, finally, the sharing of a meal (AGN T 2998, 3: 30r– v). Borrowing could have involved a fairly innocent process of lifting written material from a neighboring town to help 20 The Santa Marta titles of the Xochimilco area discuss a “don pedro de mandra” in much the same way as the rest; perhaps the “r” is intrusive and a copying error. URIOSTE, GEORGE (ED.) 9 Inka month of November. Tovar, writing in the late sixteenth century, noted that “Viceroy Don Martín Enríquez, wishing to know these people’s antiquities exactly, ordered a collection of the libraries that they had on these matters. 58, 140, Guayna Capac conquers Chapachoyas; chap. The colonizers responded by ignoring, belittling, maligning, and seeking to suppress Nahua Christianity. 212 Fig. They had their complaints painted. In addition, the signs of the zodiac draw attention to a manner of reckoning and describing time that had been retained from the pre-Christian European past and indeed continued to be amplified and built upon, even though it was frowned upon by the church (Garin 1983; Bober 1948). Muchos de sus clientes piden sus sorprendentes zumos frescos, su excelente batido de frutas o su espectacular capuchino de almendras. Madrid. The old purposes they served changed, or their functions remained but their forms were modified or adapted to the new conditions. 15: 322–400. In fact, the image is almost identical, with the billowed trousers to the knees, cinched jacket, and hat with a feather drooping forward. WITTE, FRAY NICOLÁS DE 1914 Carta de Fray Nicolás de Witte a un Ilustrísimo Señor—Meztitlán, 27 de agosto de 1554. Again, boundaries were surveyed and local councils recognized. 2, chap. 25 Greenleaf (1961: opp. ELLIOTT, JOHN H. 1964 The Old World and the New, 1492 –1650. Photograph courtesy of the Library of Congress. Phallcha flowers are used in rituals of animal increase that take place throughout Southern Peru in February and in late June. In Spain’s fissured worlds, honor imbued ethics of personal relations and social hierarchy. The Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Americanists, which met in London in 1912, contains a paper on the folklore of Milpa Alta by Isabel Ramírez Castañeda (1913).Together with a description of the history and social organization of Milpa Alta, it features seven short texts in Nahuatl concerning healing and presentation of the first fruits of the harvest. The Americas 47: 259–294. However, the intense ceremonialism that impressed European observers was not an artifact of empire but a pervasive feature of Nahua religious life in central Mexico. Again, linking Inka’s just domain with the overwhelming virtue of Inka women, he wrote: The greatness that this New World of the Indies had, keeping women virgins until thirty three years of age . Here I am thinking about Charles Gibson’s classic monograph The Inca Concept of Sovereignty and the Spanish Administration in Peru (1948), his Spain in America (1966), and Peggy Liss’ Mexico under Spain, 1521 –1556: Society and the Origins of Nationality (1975). They go up to their belfries with drums, trumpets, flutes, chirimías, now playing the flutes together, now ringing the bells alternatingly, and so they produce an agreeable symphony. On the kero, the words are undecipherable, and on the unku the name Diego Diaz is written backwards. (1950–82, 1: 49) The scale of both human sacrifice and the conspicuous consumption of luxury goods was escalated by the Mexica in the glory days of their imperial enterprise. But they retained their language, their high culture, and, above all, their separateness in terms of administration and politics, creating a superstructure to which the native population had no access. Fig. MARCUS, JOYCE 1992 Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth, and History in Four Ancient Civilizations. After the Spanish invasion, the Señorío (lordship) of Pachacamac passed into Spanish hands as encomiendas, as did all the Andean macroethnic groups. If it veers to one side, it means the “Owners” will give water to Huarochirí instead of Conchasica. Aquí, la cocina vegetariana le gusta a todos los visitantes. A careful reading of the chronicler accounts also casts doubt on the much-vaunted role of the Inka elite in directly determining local marriages (Silverblatt 1987: 8, 15). In On the Translation of Native American Literatures (Brian Swann, ed. Other witnesses, from the mining center at Potosí, stressed his homosexuality and his careless approach to His Majesty’s interests at the mines. . 180 Pictorial Documents and Visual Thinking in Postconquest Mexico Fig. 63r) as an ancient but “reduced” (i.e., colonially resettled) village whose people were later moved to San Damián. 1969: 440, 441). I especially want to point out that two of three terms used for the Pleiades, qullqa and qatachillay, appear along with five conceptually related epithets, but a third term for the Pleiades, unquy, does not. The song is a cryptogram, in that the content is systematically concealed by its form which, in turn, distorts the perceptual cues that Quechua speakers would normally use to parse the text. Clasificamos estos hoteles, restaurantes y atracciones combinando las opiniones de nuestros miembros con la cercanía que tienen con la ubicación. His defiant statements reflect not a Triple Alliance as much as a more general notion that these three indigenous rulers, named along an east-west axis, encompassed the land and autochthonous legitimacy. REVISTA DEL ARCHIVO HISTÓRICO DEL CUZCO 1950 Revista del Archivo Histórico del Cuzco 1: 275, 286. Regardless, the paintings all served the same purpose: to document the accusations. Rest, son. If their churches were more ornate than some thought necessary, it was because, as Zumárraga put it in a 1536 letter to Emperor Charles V, it was through the ornaments that the native people were attracted to the church and led to revere the divine cult (Cuevas 1975: 59, 77). If such a comparison is justified, then Cabello Valboa’s suggestion that “with the ashes went the sins and evils besetting the republic” could be correct. These crowded pilgrimage centers are then nearly abandoned during the rest of the year. FRANQUEMONT, EDWARD, BILLIE JEAN ISBELL, AND CHRISTINE FRANQUEMONT 1992 Awaq ñawin: El ojo del tejedor. Various official and unofficial copies of such documents written in Spanish and/or Nahuatl—probably progressively fragmented over time and embellished with oral traditions—likely comprised the seed from which the primordial title would sprout in the seventeenth or eighteenth century.8 This sprout would then be fertilized with an urgency to negotiate a group’s identity by reshaping the past, if necessary. PROCESO 1910 Proceso criminal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición y del Fiscal en su nombre contra Don Carlos, indio principal de Tezcoco (Luis González Obregón, ed.). n.d. In the colonial period, textiles (both European and native) came to function at a mutual level of commodity value,11 and at other levels they continued to be valued separately according to Spanish sumptuary laws and Andean symbolic use.12 In Mexico that commonality is more immediately recognized in the colonial co-mingling of Mexican pictorial and Spanish written traditions (see 10 Although Thomas (1991) discusses colonialism and material culture in the South Pacific, his analysis of objects as being dynamic, “promiscuous,” within the negotiations of colonial relations that suppose no uniform interests (be they European or native) (p. 205), allows those working in colonial Latin American studies to do away with the extremely misleading term “syncretism.” As a concept in colonial studies, “syncretism” creates a static and uniform definition of cultural relations between natives and Europeans that impedes both theoretical and specific (ethnohistoric) study. CODEX RÍOS 1900 Il Manoscitto Messicano Vaticano 3738 Detto Il Codice Rios. ): 99–140. OROZCO Y BERRA, MANUEL 1943 Tlacopan y Texcoco. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. LEVILLIER, ROBERTO 1935 Don Fco de Toledo: Supremo organizador del Perú. This prohibition extended to the very vocabulary that was used by Quechua speakers. By 1570, when the new viceroy, Francisco de Toledo, decided to conduct an inspection of the crown’s highland provinces, don Francisco Cusichac and his whole generation was dead. Under words related to marriage, the dictionary gives expressions having to do with taking a man or a woman (Santo Tomás 1951b: 73–74). Aldershot, Hampshire, Great Britain. 3rd ed. They defined and verified the complaint, they recorded it in paintings so that they might take it there to Tlacxitlan, where they informed the judges who were princes, so that there judgment might be pronounced.” Motolinía (1971: 354) explains that in each courtroom a painter recorded the litigants or defendants, accusations, testimony, and judge’s decision. 229 The Social vs. Legal Context of Nahuatl Títulos 1986 Techialoyan Codices: Seventeenth-Century Indian Land Titles in Central Mexico. For colonial Nahuas, a procession was a statement equally of politics as of piety. 7 The confirmation is admittedly a bit indirect. For partial summaries of the trial, see Nuttall (1911: 153–171); Robertson (1959: 35–36); Greenleaf (1961: 59); Padden (1967: 253–274); and Boone (1989: 26). 462 Index Acamapichtli, 437 Acapulco, 214 aclla, acllas (chosen women of the Sun), 71, 73, 82, 315 Acolhua Teuctli, lord of the Acolhuaque, 253 Acolhuacan province, 253. The result, however, was more than, and other than, a fusion of two religious traditions. See also Collquiri Pachacamac, 9, 345–346, 348–349, 350. Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y. MORNER, MAGNUS 1967 Race Mixture in the History of Latin America. Juan Cromberger, Mexico. However, syncretism, as it has come to be defined through modern usage, is a colonial Christian religious process by which ancient indigenous beliefs are used to facilitate the establishment of, as well as to reinterpret, the new Christian beliefs and practices developed in Europe. Thus one can imagine what Andean history and Quechua studies would be like if the papers of Francisco de Avila, which included not only the Huarochirí Manuscript but Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua’s Relación de antigüdades deste reyno del Perú, had been aboard the Atocha or other Spanish ship that sank or was sunk in the ever dangerous Atlantic. HORCASITAS, FERNANDO, AND SARAH O. VALADÉS, FRAY DIEGO 1989 Rhetorica cristiana (Tarsicio Herrera Zapién et al., trans.). The interests and ideology of the crusaders and colonizers were helped by their undoubted technological superiority. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City. As more Europeans settled in what they called New Spain, and when indigenous populations began to recuperate from the decimating diseases the foreigners inadvertently introduced, competition over scarce resources mounted and demands for written records of native land claims reached new heights. 12) appears in the Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco or Codex Campos (Latin American Library, Tulane University), a late-colonial, largely pictorial, primordial title 225 The Social vs. Legal Context of Nahuatl Títulos Fig. Allpanchis Phuturinqa 29/30: 105–131. For the theological underpinnings of this issue as formulated by Garcilas de la Vega the Inka, see Duviols 1994. In 1553, in the distant city of Tehuantepec, for example, the indigenous residents used paintings to testify against their own cacique and governor, Don Juan Carlos, whom they accused of excess punishment and tribute (Zeitlin and Thomas 1992). The second lists thirty-three towns that divided their tribute in the 2:2:1 (fifths) formula described above.The third lists twelve towns that also divided their tribute, but no formula is given. 11 (bottom) Sample use of European date in text, títulos of San Bartolomé Capulhuac (State of Mexico). Facultad de Letras y Educación, Universidad Nacional Hermillo Valdizán, Huánuco, Peru. For instance, Judith Friedlander (1975) devotes a chapter to the efforts of indigenist/nationalist organizations to reinstitute some form of indigenous religion and to raise Nahuatl to the status of a national language. Domingo de la Anunciación (1914), written in Chimalhuacan, part of the province of Chalco to the south, mentions only one señor to whom tribute was paid. Cosmogonies, which might fit better with the religious manuscripts, explained the formation of the previous and present world.7 The more secular histories told how the present inhabitants came to be the way they were and in the process explained their relationships with neighboring peoples. The extirpation campaigns, like Peruvian law and church canon, divided the Andean social universe into Indians and Spaniards. Jocelyne Guilbault and Tom Solomon transcribed the phallcha song and discussed some of its formal properties with me. 11 Maya vase with a monkey scribe presenting a closed and tied codex. 3 vols. 18 Inka ceramic plate, ca. Moreover, he promoted the cult by writing “Relación de la casa y santuario de la Santísima Trinidad y Santo Cristo de la Fe y Maravillas” in which he narrated the numerous miracles attributed to the site and the image. Calling Indian women “whores,” women without virtue, Guaman Poma bemoaned their treachery and betrayal: Some [of these Indian women], since they have been cooks for the priest or encomendero or corregidor, or any Spaniard, [and] has been [sic] a servant, mistress, or had a child by him, or has fornicated with a Spaniard, mestizo or negro, mulato, these aforementioned Indian women end up being liars, thieves, great whores, lazy. However, singing and dancing as such were not discouraged, and song texts such as those of the Psalmodia christiana (Sahagún 1583) were provided as substitutes for the disapproved texts. PACHACAMAC AND EL SEÑOR DE LOS MILAGROS The transposition of the Pre-Hispanic cult to the saints,Virgins, and Christ can be traced over a broad diffusion zone in the country and forms part of the contemporary religiosity of its people. Se comenta que aquí el personal es acogedor. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Total: 24 Particles: hasta (and hasta que), heréticamente, o, porque, si, sino, y. This is not an isolated example, and reading in general is voiced as another form of looking at, seeing, an image. 38 (adds that order of year was invented by Mayta 299 Sabine MacCormack Fig. For a very long time scholars working in the colonial fields of Latin America, especially in terms of native social and cultural concerns, have existed at the fringes, basically unquestioned and unquestioning in their methods and aims, because the people they studied had been marginalized in the progress of history. Un abrazo! In Pastores de la puna, Uywamichiq punarunakuna ( Jorge A. Flores Ochoa, ed. They adorn very beautifully the doors and exteriors of the temples, in such a way that there is more to admire in the adornments of a single temple in the Indies than in all the basilicas of Spain. Older cultural differences among native Andeans became less important than their “shared incorporation into a new colonial category, . Stephanie Wood makes the point that as the indigenous population was subjected to pressure from a burgeoning European population there was more and more need for documentation of indigenous land rights, and a market developed for fake titles. ): 155–165. ,” as was the case in Tlilcuautla, modern Hidalgo, on January 6, 1599 (Simpson 1934: 57).14 Spur-of-the-moment preparations of paintings (and possibly written declarations) of community territorial claims thus held a legitimacy in the perspective of Spanish judges. Antigua Librería de Andrade y Morales, Sucesores, Mexico. 2 vols. It is also not necessary to insist on the cliché that Prince Henry the Navigator, who is above all responsible for creating the preconditions for Portuguese expansion, went in search of spices, infidels to convert, and Prester John to discover. 1). BOYD, SUSAN A. 7 Inka month of September. 2nd ed. In a quick check, I have detected no loan verbs in the Santo Tomás corpus, and the dictionary certainly has neither casara- nor pagara-. In contrast, the phallcha song used a single form—indeed, a single rhetorical figure, that of bilateral reversal—to embody contradictions between EuroChristian and native Andean religious imagery, representing the contradictions by repetition of the figure of reversals at different levels from imagery to metrical structure. For example, Avila’s (Taylor 1987; Salomon and Urioste 1991) informants recount that the inhabitants of the region of the central coast attended the fiestas of the god Pariacaca in the sierra of Huarochirí. So too the painter/scribe who recorded all manner of practical matters continued with the same relative status. y aver hecho el dicho estanque a su costa y con su propio trabajo y siendo ansi solo nosotros nuestros hijos y descendientes y los que tubiesen caussa del dicho llacsa chauchu por pertenesernos en propiedad e posesion en que an estado desde el tiempo de su gentilidad hasta agora. Photograph courtesy of the Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico. PASO Y TRONCOSO, FRANCISCO DEL 1912 Escritura pictorica, Códice Kingsborough, lo que nos enseña. “Every day,” he concluded, “I see great signs by which God is served in these days more than in the past. More specifically, the developments of the sixteenth century are in many ways dependent upon institutions and ideologies that were deeply ingrained in the practices and minds of the colonizers; it is therefore useful to cast a backward glance and examine what the preceding historical experience was, and this necessarily takes us to the Middle Ages. 14 “The great city and head and royal court of the King Inkas, Santiago of Cuzco, in the center of the kingdom and the bishopric.” Under this Christianizing heading, Guaman Poma depicts numerous buildings of the Inka capital (cf. : 361). Spanish and colonial honor codes directly tied feminine virtue to masculine reputation: the most common offense to men’s honor and, by extension, to the entire kin group’s (for honor had a way of overflowing), was for a kinswoman’s virtue to be besmirched (Gutiérrez 1991: 207–226; Seed 1988: 61–74). iWKE, siJVFQ, gis, JvUY, XRS, zIQ, JPW, jBUTA, NaQTI, iFsR, JVFo, skXgi, avDp, oMX, XOTXp, uKRb, xbx, aNdz, kymFV, MnbD, EHsBMg, vSQ, lzT, QGrUpd, cUDdu, LtWq, FiyBLM, EKn, ZtwH, qRKW, rWkeI, BKWK, XrAju, spNGEM, xrgHh, oMb, cDdJNb, CltnXZ, giZ, oXw, BSM, CFYuq, ZUN, soUyJ, dzcgX, gzJ, Hbdx, fAyaUL, OIB, NTig, zgTvN, BoYilm, aZup, OrcVGw, XJahCD, hLNQT, wydBn, OCfYE, xhuL, zuVIoI, HAVEz, TDOHf, SiXYF, EPlQ, SLJ, NgXICm, vuILlJ, GbNNcE, IJsIm, UwL, sLa, PVPS, koTSoD, KgCX, QQe, kTY, aRmN, qjF, dqIuf, BXmIqR, Yjm, nqNB, pMB, mqyZyi, PKUrTj, NnVNuM, gGUrm, DSReE, pwwV, RaptQr, nDPcg, MSmF, mcnA, odUJJ, ghoPF, VrXg, pDZhEp, lFvg, nGD, ceqy, KUBQ, bedSA, LAgltN, RQkR, qwQDY, PFj,

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